Adult Learning Assumptions

Adult Learning Assumptions Six Key Assumptions Provided by Knowles Knowles’s work is narrowed to the analysis of theories of adult learning. His concept of andragogy is the most well-known theory of adult development. Hence, the scope of Knowles (2005) model is based on the six basic assumptions concerning adults and their attitude to learning:Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Adult Learning Assumptions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Adults are more self-directed rather than dependent; The main resource for learning is constant accumulation of experience; Their desire to acquire knowledge and to learn is predetermined by their social roles; Adult are considered to be more subject-oriented rather problem-oriented in the course of learning; They believe that internal motivations are less powerful as compared with the external ones; Finally, it is important for adult learners to know why it is crucial to learn something (Knowles et al., 2005). All these assumptions are considered to be critical for designing effective educational models for adult learners. Analysis of the Assumptions with Regard to Other Critical Evaluations The above-presented assumptions have been reviewed and evaluated by other scholars engaged into the study of adult learning, including various theories and models. Merriam et al. (2007) agree with some assumptions provided by Knowles. In particular, the researchers single out three main methods for transformational learning: development, experience and critical reflection. They also consider experience as an important factor for creating a great opportunity for adult learners. MacKeracher (2004) also assumers that â€Å"Knowles clearly succeeded in encouraging adult educators to be more critically reflective about their assumptions about adult learners and adult learning† (p. 24). Despite the fact that some assumptions are quite logical and consistent, Merriam et al. (2007) con tend that Knowles succeeded only in introducing a teaching theory rather than the model for adult learning. In particular, they state that there is an ambiguity in Knowles’s assumptions concerning the theory orientation. In particular, they believe that it is hard to define whether this theory is designed for teaching or learning, for adults or for children. Knowles’s Two Assumptions That Almost Wrong Much critics and discontent is connected with his assumptions about adults orientation on subjects and their readiness to move from dependence to self-directed approaches to learning. Therefore, the first and the fourth assumptions are considered to be wrong and this can also be proven by other scholarly researches in this field.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Hence, as it has been mentioned before, MacKeracher (2004) presupposes that these assumptions a re quite controversial. In particular he believes that â€Å"[t]he change from ‘self-directed’ to ‘increasing self-directness’ and from ‘problem centered’ to ‘performance-centered’ did not satisfy those who saw the Knowles’ distinction between child and adult learning as being based on assumptions that would not hold up under close scrutiny’† (pp. 23-24). Second, the falsity of assumption also lies in some psychological characteristic of a person. Hence, some adults are not self-directed because they need some support and guidance in learning, whereas there are children who are internally directed and independent in learning (Comings, Garner, and Smith, p. 203). Knowles’ Two Assumptions That are Almost Right With regard to the studies and theories examined by scholars (Merriam et al. 2007, MacKeracher, 2004, Comings et al. 2004), the second and the third assumptions are considered to be quite consistent and appropriate for andragogical learning conceptions. All of them agree with the assumption that experience is reservoir of knowledge and the main underpinning of a learning process. Merriam et al. (2007) believe that a person’s accumulated experience provide relevant and effective opportunities and is closely connected with the learning process. The researchers also believe that experience is a significant aspect affecting adult learners’ ability to obtain, accumulate, and transfer knowledge. According to MacKeracher (2004), â€Å"Adults accumulate experience and prior learning over their lifetime, the older they grow, the more past experience and prior learning they bring to bear on current learning† (p. 33). Interpreting this, the researcher completely agrees with the fact that experience is the main underpinning for learners’ development. More importantly, experience is the source for creating and developing strategies and skills for reflecting and o rganizing reaction and interaction in the present. Coming et al. (2004) support Knowles’s third assumption about the influence of social context on the learning process. The scholars insist on the fact that contextual environment play a decisive role in adults development and knowledge accumulation (Coming et al, 2004, 209).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Adult Learning Assumptions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Indeed, context based learning can tale place in the working environment where adults are interacting, becoming the parts of community. Therefore, the result of adults’ learning development largely depends on the social environment they are surrounded by as well as social roles adults perform. Conclusion Knowles’s (2005) assumptions about adult learning have created a plethora of contradictions that have been critically accepted by other scholars. Hence, his assumptions about adults’ self-directed orientation and problem-centered method of learning have not been supported by the other researcher. This is explained by arguments correlated with psychological development of individuals. However, his arguments about experience and social role have been widely accepted by the scholars. In particular, they believe that social environment and experience accumulation are the main pillars for adult learners’ development and knowledge acquisition. Reference List Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., and Swanson, R. (2005). The Adult Learner: the definite classic in adult education and human resource development. US: Butterworth-Heinemann. MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning. US: University of Toronto Press. Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Coming, J. Garner, B., and Smith C. (2004). Review of Adult Learning and Literacy: Connecting Rese arch, Policy and Practice: A Project of the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. NJ: Routledge.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Definition of a Timber Rotation Period

Definition of a Timber Rotation Period A timber rotation period is simply the time between the establishment of a stand of trees and when that same stand is ready for a final cut. This period of years, often called the optimum rotation period, is especially important when foresters try to determine the most advantageous harvest condition in an even-aged stand of trees. When a stand is either economically mature or reaching beyond natural maturity, the rotation period has been reached and a final harvest can be planned. In any given condition, there is a best size and age to which timber should be allowed to grow. These sizes and ages can be very different depending on the desired harvest scheme used and the final timber product to be produced. What is important to know is that a premature cutting ​should  be avoided before trees reach their optimum value or, on the other hand, that trees in a stand do not grow beyond their optimum size and continued vigor. Over mature stands can result in defective tree deterioration, timber handling, and milling problems. There is also a time in maturing stands when a decreasing growth rate (of return) hurts the owners investment return. An optimum timber rotation is often based on and determined by precisely calculated criteria using the latest developments in forest statistics and the proper equipment. These criteria include measuring a stands mean diameter and height (stand size), determining the stand age in years, coring and measuring tree rings to determine the climax of mean annual increment and monitoring all these data for the onset of negative physical deterioration or when growth rates drop.

POPULAR SCIENCE ARTICLE Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

POPULAR SCIENCE - Article Example It stays this way to protect itself against adverse conditions for long periods of time, in order to wait for a better time period to grow. Through experimental incubation, these spores are revived, which seem to have come from deeper hot spots inside the ocean. These newly discovered bacteria have very similar genetic characteristics to a set of bacteria found from offshore oil reservoirs. Hubert, a PhD in petroleum microbiology states that  that surveys will be able to pinpoint the exact  place from where these microorganisms have originated. He believes they might have some interesting applications, that is, if they are coming from petroleum reservoirs. These bacteria were found to be anaerobic, as they were found in high number in the sediments. Hubert stated that a source of the bacteria could be the oil reservoir and another could be that the fluid circulation through the ocean crust at the spreading ridges where hydrothermal vents are present. While these spores are extremely helpful in tracking down marine hot spots, they also offer new information about the wild life and everything about the different variety of things here in the biosphere. The bacterial species  found  in  the  environment  hide  many  of the minor groups of bacteria that apparently  don’t seem to participate in  the  functioning  of  the  ecosystem. These dormant thermophiles can be a useful key in understanding how diverse is the marine ecosystem and how well it is maintained by the submissive spreading of cells over a large area. These arctic thermophiles can be the holders of great and important clues to solve broader riddle of biogeography and biodiversity.   The thermophiles are a form of bacteria that live and breed in hot places and kill organisms around them (Kristjà ¡nsson; p 43). These are grouped into two types, either Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes.   They breed in temperatures that range between 50C to 70C. Studying these

Financial Institutions and Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Financial Institutions and Markets - Essay Example A monetary policy employed by a country can either be an expansionary monetary policy or ‘contractionary’ monetary policy. Expansionary monetary policy helps in increasing the money supply in the economy of a country at a faster rate than normal and in case of ‘contractionary’ monetary policy, the money supply increases at slower rate or even fall behind in the economy. Expansionary monetary policy is often employed to prevent unemployment during recession. It happens because of interest rates going lower which therefore attracts credit facility to be available easily for the business concerns to help themselves expand. In the United States, expansionary monetary policy is implemented through the combination of three things. They are: a) Using Open Market Operations, by purchasing securities in the open market. b) Federal Discount Rate is lowered. c) Reserve Requirements are also lowered. Now, all these three steps have a direct impact on the interest rates, including mortgage rates. This leads to increase in borrowing of mortgage loans, as well as increase in rates of capital investments by business concerns. Most countries follow an expansionary monetary policy to ensure higher economic growth and go on decreasing the interest rates. It helps in growth of employment opportunities but at the same time has its limitations too. This can only have a short term effect on the economy. In the long run, it will lead to higher inflation rate and would also affect the economy in an adverse way (Mishkin, 2007, p.39). Thus, effect on long term mortgage rates are less predictable and the effect is on a lower proportion as compared to the extent of expansionary economic measures taken by a country. This happens mainly due to two reasons. Firstly, real factors like market demand influences the long term mortgage interest rates more than the monetary factors. Secondly, the effect or impact of monetary factors operates mainly on the expected future l ong term mortgage rates (Gwartney, et. al. 2008, p.301). Although the expansionary economic measures reduce the short term mortgage interest rates, it may lead to a rise in interest rates in long term. This unpredictability problem creates a surmounting problem in creating a balance between the mortgage rates and expansionary economic measures followed by a country. Expansionary Monetary Policy Expansionary monetary policies are used by countries to help stimulate the economic growth of the country. It leads to increase in supply of money in the country. It usually leads to lowering of interest rates in the country. This in turn reduces the borrowing cost and also reduces the return on savings. This helps in increasing the aggregate demand of goods and services in the economy. People are more attracted towards investing in housing by taking loans at lower interest rates. These types of expansionary monetary policies are often employed in countries to counter the recessionary gap. It helps in reducing or preventing unemployment

Uncontrollable Jealousy Essay Example for Free

Uncontrollable Jealousy Essay Jealousy is a lethal weapon if used in the wrong hands. Jealousy is the feeling of resentment against someone’s success or advantages. In the texts, â€Å"Othello† and â€Å"How to Get into Medical School, Part l and Part ll†, the authors William Shakespeare and Vincent Lam decide to use the theme of jealousy to develop an appealing plot for the reader. The story of Fitzgerald in â€Å"How to Get into Medical School, Part l and Part ll† has the theme of jealousy written all over. The first glimpse of Fitzgerald’s envious thoughts occurs when Ming tells Fitzgerald that she gets accepted to medical school while Fitzgerald replies with a mocking â€Å"Well, congratulations, Doctor Ming† (page 16). Later on, Fitzgerald’s jealous mind turns towards Karl. â€Å"he hated knowing that his marks were soaring as a result of Karl’s study methods.† (page 60). Fitzgerald’s jealous thoughts only appear to slip out at tense moments. The jealousy throughout Fitzgerald’s role in the story creates a more interesting plot line for the reader. While the text â€Å"How to Get into Medical School, Part l and Part ll† demonstrates the theme of jealousy very well; Othello, being one of the classic Shakespearean plays, has gained its reputation for the theme of jealousy. In the novel â€Å"Othello† Iago is a victim of jealousy and causes him to act out of the ordinary. At the beginning of the plot Iago is blindsided by Othello because Othello chooses Cassio over Iago for the job of lieutenant. Jealousy takes control of Iago and causes him to plot revenge against Othello. â€Å"Till I am even’d with him, wife for wife, or failing so, yet that I put the Moor at least into a jealousy so strong that judgment cannot cure† (II, i, 299-302). Although jealousy is strongest between Iago and the Moor, the theme can also be found between Emilia and Desdemona, and Roderigo and Othello, and Desdemona and Othello. Very similar to the love triangle in â€Å"Twelfth Night† by William Shakespeare, this triangle can be found in this novel as well but replaced with jealousy. Shakespeare successfully implied the theme of jealousy into his novel â€Å"Othello†. Although used in different ways, jealousy was efficiently portrayed in both â€Å"Othello† and â€Å"How to Get into Medical School, Part l and Part ll†. The authors decided to use jealousy as the main theme because it is an interesting topic to read about and it catches the reader’s attention. Many  of the readers have had real life situations of jealousy which allows them to relate to the text more often. This will hook them onto the text much more. That is why the theme of jealousy is such a successful theme to write about. Jealousy can be used in so many different ways and can still be as effective. Jealousy is a strong theme and is capable of creating an effective plot if used correctly. The use of jealousy is very evident in both novels by Shakespeare and Vincent Lam. Both authors created a near-perfect atmosphere of jealousy for the reader. Work Cited Shakespeare, William. Othello. Vol. 1. Toronto: Harcourt Canada Ltd., 2000. Print. Lam, Vincent. Bloodletting Miraculous Cures. Toronto: Random House of Canada Ltd., 2005. Print.

Intrinsic Motivation is Ideal Essay -- Learning Education Motives Ess

Inquisitive and self-directed learning is a natural behavior for young children. They marvel at each new discovery and strive to understand the meaning behind every question in their world. However, older children seem to be resistant to learning unless directed by teachers or parents with various forms of external recognition (Deci and Ryan, 1981). Their enthusiasm and inner desire for understanding has diminished. Learning, to older children has become directly connected to demands, controls, and rewards. In order to understand why this attitude toward learning develops, the concept of motivation in education must be defined and examined in a theoretical sense. "Motivation is an essential condition of learning" (Ray, 1992, p.3). A motivating condition may be defined as an emotion, desire, physiological need, or similar impulse that acts as an incitement to action. Ray (1992) comments that "motivation in education is concerned with students’ motivation to learn" (p.3). With the understanding of these defined concepts in hand, we can begin to examine the reasons behind school age children losing their enthusiasm for learning. In order to comprehend the reason for the undermining of this intrinsic behavior, we must acknowledge the basic theories of motivation from an eclectic standpoint. By embracing the concepts of learning from both a behaviorist and cognitive point of view, a teacher can tailor the use of reinforcement in the classroom to commit the students to achieving acad emic excellence with enthusiasm and devotion. Findings Motivational Theories Humanistic behavior and learning techniques are viewed from many different positions of psychological theories (Ramirez, 1983). In order for a teacher to effectively apply these psychological principles in their classroom, they must become knowledgeable in the various conflicting theories. Looking at the theoretical aspect of motivation to learn provides background information about the basic nature of different learning processes (Ericksen, 1974). The locus of control in motivation is the subject area where separate theoretical views come into play. People have either an internal locus of control, an external locus of control, or are simply amotivated. "Intrinsic motivation is a state where the relevance for the learner of the content of the material is the main reason for learning. Extrinsic... ...istrators who respond to their initiations and support their practicing methods to remain intrinsically motivated in the same way that students need teachers to respond to their initiations and mastery attempts to remain enthusiastic about learning (Deci and Ryan, 1981). School administrators, and the community in general, need to be supportive of teachers’ efforts to try new things, to respond to the challenges, and to teach according to their preferred methods. "Deci and Ryan propose that if the climate of the educational system were more informational and autonomy-oriented in nature, this would foster teachers’ intrinsic motivation for teaching. In turn, teachers would be better able to foster intrinsic motivation in their students" (Deci and Ryan, 1981, p. 17). The art of skillfully implementing reinforcement, in a tailored fashion, for the students’ development of intrinsic motivation to learn is a difficult task for a teacher to master. Even though the school administration and community should be responsible for setting precedence of intrinsic motivation throughout the schools, the obligation of effectively facilitating this concept is in the possession of the teacher.

Book Review on Franklin Delano Roosevelt Essay

Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd President of the United States. While being president he was trying to lead our country through a time of economic depression and total war. Franklin D. Roosevelt was one of the most important leaders of the 20th century. Alan Brinkley, the author of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, wrote this biography in order to show Roosevelt’s life from childhood to presidency and all the trials and tribulations that occurred. Brinkley wrote this book to be able to show Roosevelt’s life from when he was born to him leading our country through the war. Not only just showing what happened in his life but also being able to show what he had to go through and what kind of decisions he had to make when running this country. This book was a great way to teach an audience about Roosevelt and was very effective in getting the point across. Brinkley used an immense amount of sources to be able to write this book. He used anywhere from other biographies to memoirs and diaries of the people who served with Roosevelt. He was not writing this book in order to criticize what all Roosevelt did wrong, but to show the magnitude and importance of everything he did right, such as the reshaping of American Government to the successful leadership of the United States. The New York Times wrote the day after Roosevelt died, â€Å"It will honor him above all else because he had the vision to see clearly the supreme crisis of our times and the courage to meet that crisis boldly. Men will thank God on their knees, a hundred years from now, that Franklin D. Roosevelt was in the White House† (99). This shows that not only was Franklin D. Roosevelt a great man he was also a great leader of our country. Brinkley did an amazing job with being able to show all of Roosevelt’s accomplishes and all the trials and tribulations he overcame during presidency and also during his life. Roosevelt was born into a very privileged family with his father James Roosevelt being extremely wealthy and his mother Sara Delano, being very wealthy herself as well. He went to Groton at fourteen years old granted he gradated doing very well academically, he went his whole four years there as a lonely outsider. He entered Harvard in 1900 with a new outlook look on life and tried hard to make friends. Roosevelt found himself being attracted to his distant cousin Eleanor Roosevelt while attending Harvard. In 1905 he married Eleanor and they together had six children. Roosevelt attended Columbia Law School, although he did not meet all the requirements he passed his bar exams and started practicing law in New York. Later, Franklin had an affair with his wife’s social secretary Lucy Mercer. Eleanor discovered their relationship in 1918 by finding letters between the two of them. Roosevelt served eight years as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1910 in New York. He was also governor of New York in 1928 and again in 1930. Roosevelt was paralyzed in both legs due to him having polio in 1921 ceasing him to be able to enjoy his favorite activities. Roosevelt would try to disguise his paralysis in public by wearing heavy leg braces to help him walk. In 1932 he was nominated for president with his opponent being Herbert Hoover. Winning the election he promised that he would conduct the war against the depression. When winning presidency Roosevelt took on an immense amount of stress all at once. The world was in an incredible crisis due to the economy depression. Roosevelt tried and tried to steadily bring back this nation, with what was called the â€Å"hundred days† where he won a series of bills that began to reform the role of the federal government in the workings of the economy. Roosevelt had what was called â€Å"The New Deal† which was a series of economic programs that involved orders or laws passed by Congress in response to the Great Depression. Roosevelt was reelected in 1936 as he campaigned on his idea of a New Deal. When Roosevelt was reelected World War II had already started. Japan had launched an invasion of Manchuria in 1922. Roosevelt began to get his country ready for war. In 1932 Hitler declared himself as the most powerful political person in Germany. By the spring of 1940 the war had spread quickly through Western Europe, with almost all of Europe being under complete Nazi control. Roosevelt had to lead our country through World War II. Rebounding from the surprise of Pearl Harbor and winning almost every victory in Europe and the Pacific. With the war and Roosevelt being paralyzed he spend most of his days in the White House. Roosevelt tried to reconnect with his distant wife and tried to have a real marriage again, but Eleanor refused and spent most of her days traveling or in her home in Duchess County. Roosevelt began seeing his long lost mistress Lucy with meetings that took place for the most part outside the White House. In January of 1945 Roosevelt met with Stalin and Churchill agreeing on the postwar occupation of Germany, which was going to be divided between the three leaders. Stalin was already ready to occupy Poland and there was no way Churchill and Roosevelt could stop him. When leaving Roosevelt hoped he could come to agreement with Stalin. In April of 1945 Roosevelt went on vacation with cousins and aids in Warm Springs, Georgia. Lucy Rutherford visited with an artist to paint Roosevelt when he complained of a â€Å"terrific headache† he collapsed and never regained consciousness, dying several hours later. Brinkley was able to show Franklin D. Roosevelt’s life and all his trials and tribulations that he had to overcome. With everything from not making friends in college, to leading our country through World War II, this biography was a very effective way to teach an audience about Franklin D. Roosevelt and how great of a leader he was. Roosevelt was criticized for some of his decisions, but this biography was able to show how many important decisions he made and how great of a president he was.